AV Aids

We learn through our five senses. The bulk of which is through our sight and hearing at 83% and 10% respectively. Thus, teachers should use ICT that emphasise the use of these two senses to help students learn more effectively.

Chapter 7 of the text provides teachers with guidelines on the use of ICT tools in respect of these two senses.

Designing Visuals

Visual materials are defined to be those that have an impact on the sense of sight. These resemble or are representations of the ideas/concepts being taught. Visuals, especially well-designed ones, help students to learn by attracting and maintaining their attention. This is important particularly for visual learners. The guidelines are:

1. Text, teachers should take note of:

a) Lettering style or font type, considering legibility.
b) Number of lettering styles, which should be no more than two in static displays. These styles should harmonise.
c) Use of capitals, should be limited to no more than six words in headlines or titles. Titles exceeding six words should have capitals added where normally required.
d) Letter colouring, which should contrast with the background which facilitates ease of reading.
e) Lettering size, which should be font size 24 at minimum. The rule of thumb being that readers at the back of the room should read with minimal effort.
f) Line spacing, which should be at least 1½ line spacing.
g) Number of lines, which depends on the type and purpose of the visual. The rule of thumb is a maximum of eight lines of text that succinctly summarises the main idea.

2. Graphics

These refer to pictures and illustrations either in a static or dynamic display.
a) Static visual display, range from line drawings to complex photographs.
b) Dynamic visual display, includes animation and video.
Generally, the visuals used must be appropriate to the learner and the text that it accompanies. When using dynamic displays, the teacher should also take into account the availability of replay features, clarity, ability to support learning and simplicity.

3. Transitional Effects
This refers to how the visual effect moves from one screen display to another and text animations. Teachers should choose suitable transitional effects that do not distract the audience from the content of the displays.

4. Use of Colour
The selection of colours should serve to present the message to students in a pleasant way. The two considerations are:
a) Use of complementary or analogous colours,
b) Emotional impact of colours
For computer screen displays, one should select one colour for text, another for background and the third for highlights.

5. Layout
Essentially, the text advises to set up an underlying pattern to determine how the viewer’s eyes will move across the visual display. Again, the teacher will have to consider:
a) Alignment of the graphic and text elements, to show clear visual relationships.
b) Shape, select a shape of presentation that is familiar to the students.
c) Balance, where one needs to consider vertical or horizontal balance, and formal or informal balance.Style, select one that is appropriate to the audience.

Audio
This refers to music, narration and sound effects that enhance learning.
1. Music, which can be used as a learning source or to create the atmosphere.
2. Narration refers to voice and speech. It can be used to:
a) Provide instruction
b) Develop students’ reading skills
c) Develop students’ listening skills
d) Complement still pictures
e) Provide a summary
f) Guide students to areas where they should pay attention
g) Provide feedback to students who may not be proficient in reading
3. Sound effects, which can be from nature, daily life or computer-generated. Like the other two forms of audio, sound effects can be used as a learning source, provide a warning signal or feedback.

The general principles guiding the use of audio are:
1. Provision of learner-control features
2. Clarity
3. Audio quality
4. Comprehensibility

I guess what I’ve learnt from this chapter of the text is that important thing to note when using visual and/or audio ICT tools in teaching is that they are a means to an end. We use them for the purpose of enhancing learning and not for their own sake. When it comes down to the bottom line, it’s pretty much like make-up where less is MORE and simplicity is the key.

TO PLAN OR NOT TO PLAN

Here goes my summary and reflections on Chapter 6 of the text:

The teacher must take on three roles to help our students develop the 21st century skills of critical thinking, collaboration and creativity:
1. Presenter
2. Facilitator
3. Designer
The teacher will switch roles depending on the design and needs of the lesson. Lesson planning is essential to ensure that these roles are linked coherently for the sole purpose of ensuring that meaningful learning takes place. A systematic and organised approach is recommended to help teachers plan effective lessons.

The eight-step process, as recommended by Reiser and Dick (1996), is:

1. Identification of Instructional Goals

According to the text, goals are the “starting points from which teaching and learning activities are derived.” As mentioned by Dr Quek and the text, these goals must be written with the students in mind. The goals will then be broken down into specific behaviours and will determine the content and manner in which the teacher will deliver it.

2. Analyse Learners

Teachers need to know their students and the manner in which they learn. This includes the general ability level, learning styles, prerequisite knowledge among others. One must also be mindful of the students’ background and general characteristics. As I have been advised by my mentor and experienced colleagues at Bedok Green Secondary School (BGSS) that such information can be derived by observing the students and by speaking to the Form Teacher and other subject teachers.

3. Identify Objectives

Objectives are the means in which students, parents and administrators understand what the teacher wants to achieve at the end of the lesson. They are also the determinants of the how and what the teacher will employ in the dissemination of content knowledge to the students. These objectives must be specific and explicit. Action verbs must be used to describe the observable and assessable behaviours that students are to exhibit at the end of the lesson. The text encourages all teachers to follow the ABCD components in crystallising the objectives of the lesson. The objectives are not merely concerned with students knowing facts but also pertain to attitudinal and physical areas”. In this, Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy is used to categorise the level and complexity of learning objectives. The lowest level is knowledge and the top of the hierarchy is evaluation. This taxonomy covers not only the cognitive domain but also the affective and psychomotor domains. Teachers are to develop lessons that challenges students at all levels of the cognitive domain and to cover the two other domains as well.

4. Plan Instructional Activities

Teachers are to plan the instructional activities for effective and meaningful learning, taking into account the time, place and types of learners. The text suggests the following way in which instructional activities may be organised within a lesson:

5. Choose Instructional Media

Instructional media are defined as the physical means of delivering instructions which can be classified as projected or non-projected media. Teachers must take into consideration appropriateness, suitability, visual design and practicality when selecting instructional media. At the bottom line, the chosen media must not detract from the overall purpose of meaningful learning. Further, whichever media is chosen, teachers must preview and test-run such media before using it in class.

6. Develop Assessment Tools

This is to ensure that students have learnt and synthesised what has been taught. It is for teachers to assess that the goals and learning objectives have been achieved.

7. Implement Instruction

Teachers can decide whether to adopt the traditional or mastery learning approaches in implementing instruction. The former refers to teaching and assessing the whole class. This approach does not take into account the different pace at which students learn. The latter, mastery learning, approach is suggested to ensure that all students master the instructional objectives by giving them sufficient time to do so. This differentiated teaching approach suggests that more able students are given enrichment exercises/activities while the teacher provides remediation to those students who require it.

8. Revise Instruction

Teachers are to reflect on and evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson. The purpose of which is to improve on the process of instruction and its results in moving forward.

Reflections for Week Three

In Chapter 2 of the text, the computer is seen to be either as a tutor or as a tool depending on whether one subscribes to the theories of behaviourism and cognitivism vis-a-vis constructivism and social constructivism.

Behaviourism & Cognitivism

Behaviourism, as derived from Skinner, is based on the belief that students are conditioned by extrinsic factors and behaviour results from external stimuli. In accordance with this, teachers are to provide the stimuli through practice and reinforcement in order to produce the desired effect.

Cognitivism is a branch of psychology is likened to information processing. From the text, it is understood that learning will occur when the information communicated to the student is processed and transferred from short-term memory to long-term one through practice. The student is assumed to be a passive learner and the teacher's role is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge to the student.

The implication of these two theories is teacher-centred learning in schools. The teacher determines the learning objectives and plans activities for her students to achieve them. She would then provide tests/assessments to ensure that the students have met these objectives. The computer assists the teacher by acting as a tutor to instruct and assess the student in the following ways:

• Drill and practice, where the computer provides a series of questions/problems to which the student responds. Immediate feedback is provided to the student on her performance. There are a few guidelines on the use drill and practice in the classroom. Of note, the teacher should ensure that the content has been taught before proceeding with drill and practice. In addition, such drill and practice exercises should be interspersed with curriculum to prevent boredom.


• Tutorial, where content/concepts are taught in systematic and organised manner. Like drill and practice, the tutorial software would also ask questions, analyse the student's response and provide feedback. The advantages are that such software provides one-to-one attention and the student is able to learn at her own pace. Of the suggestions on the manner in which such software may be integrated with lessons, the teacher should ensure regular monitoring of the student's progress and provide aid when necessary. The teacher must also take into consideration the different pace of learning among her students, ensuring that other tasks are planned for students who complete the specified task ahead of her classmates.


• Multimedia encyclopedias and electronic books, which are software or databases where students can refer for information. This is a passive tool and the teacher must ensure proper planning and scaffolding in the use of such tools.

Constructivism & Social Constructivism

Constructivism is based on the belief that an individual will construct what it receives and makes sense of it through knowledge discovery. The emphasis of this theory is on the manner in which a student constructs such knowledge. Learning will occur if the student "can construct his/her own knowledge and apply or generalise its meanings for new situations." The student will learn through making hypotheses and testing them out. This theory indicates that there are many ways to learn so long as the desired outcome is achieved. The basis is that "once personal knowledge is constructed" it would hold meaning for the student and such knowledge would be retained. The constructivist approach is relevant when the new knowledge to be acquired is a little beyond the student's current capability.

Social Constructivism holds that an individual constructs knowledge within the context of his/her social cultural influence or bearings. This refers to one's interaction with people as posited by Vygotsky and language. Language influences learning as it determines how one makes meaning of the world. It is said that learning will occur when students "socially build, share and agree upon knowledge." This approach is advisable when there are "no absolute right or wrong to a certain topic and different perspectives are valued".

The implication of these two theories on ICT is that the computer is seen as a tool instead of a tutor. The computer or ICT can be seen to be:

• Informational tools. The computer provides access to a wide array of information in text, sound, graphic or video format. The teacher should provide assistance to the student in its use through guiding questions. The teacher should ensure that the students are able to synthesise the information instead of merely collating downloaded information.


• Constructive tools, which are all purpose tools for "manipulating information, or constructing and visualising one's own knowledge." Such tools include concept map programmes, word processors and multimedia authoring (e.g. PowerPoint). The teacher must take care to ensure that such tools are used to co-construct knowledge rather than as a means to present information.


• Communicative tools, which facilitate communication between teachers and students. The communication can be synchronous or asynchronous and include the simple e-mail, electronic bulletin board and chat programmes. Like the above, the teacher is advised to ensure that such tools are used for two-way interaction instead of merely communicating information/instructions to students. It would be wise to educate students on cyberwellness to guard against the misuse of such tools.


• Situating tools, which provide an environment where users can interact. These include virtual realities and 3-D simulations. In such environments, the user is able to manipulate variables for learning. These tools are particularly useful for "experiences that are impossible or difficult to attain." Teachers are advised against the use of these tools for situations which are easily attainable or replicated.

Teachers can utilise these tools depending on the assumptions of the learning process. It is my view that these tools form the personal arsenal of the teacher depending on the subject, topic and level of learning. There is no one tool that fits all situations and teachers must know how to mix and match these tools with the curriculum.

We learnt about the five different ways of learning at last week's tutorial:

1. case-based


2. project-based


3. resource-based


4. inquiry-based


5. game-based

My take-homes for the lesson are:

• encourage active learning by students through the careful use of the above


• careful planning by teachers to scaffold learning


• monitoring of students' learning vis-a-vis learning objectives


• the five types of learning can be used individually or meshed


• these five types of learning can be used to complement the traditional chalk-and-board

That's all folks! The next installment starts tomorrow.

Reflections on Self-Directed & Collaborative Learning

After having read both chapters in the text, I understand that self-directed learning (SDL) involves engaging the learner in challenging activities where he/she will complete these challenges and simultaneous develop the personal knowledge and skills required in the process. It is important that students are equipped with the skill of self-directed learning and in particular the use of ICT in such endeavours in the 21st century.





From the text, I've understood that using ICT in self-directed learning is not about:

• e-learning at designated portals


• using PowerPoint presentations in the presenting group work


• playing with computers for chats etc.

Rather, using ICT in self-directed learning is about utilising the various applications/systems to facilitate the students' learning in terms of causal reasoning, analogies, expressive and experiential and in problem solving.

I wish that mp3 had been around when I was in school. It certainly would have been beneficial if such skills would have been taught and acquired at an earlier age. Learning is of greater benefit if there is personal stake in the acquisition of knowledge.

Likewise, collaborative learning is not about group work. It is actually defined to be ''a social process whereby students learn through interacting with others''. It is about establishing common learning goals and going about to construct knowledge together. ICT will be used to facilitate collaborative learning as tools in face-to-face settings, accessing and working on common documents and in the negotiation of meaning.

Aside from the collective acquisition of knowledge, students would also learn the skills of teamwork and interpersonal communication which are vital once they leave the school environment and enter their respective workplaces.

As student teachers, we must embrace these concepts of learning and be suitably equipped in order to guide and engage our students appropriately.

REFLECTIONS @ 9 AUGUST 2009

I learnt that the Master Plans were and are designed to gear the country particularly the young towards a knowledge-based economy. I appreciate the systematic manner in which this is done. In my opinion, teachers as facilitators of learning must similarly model and embody such qualities of self-directed and collaborative learning if we are to help our students succeed in this brave new world.

In chapter 5 of the text, I learnt about the affordances of ICT tools for learning. In particular, in the educational setting, we are concerned with the pedagogical, social and the technological affordances. In simple terms, it means refers to the suitability of using the particular ICT tool for the topic or subject at hand. Basically, ICT should be used to enhance learning and not detract from the learning at hand. In addition, the tool to be used must place both students and teachers at ease and comfort in its use. Finally, the technological affordances refer to the “usability of an ICT tool’’. What does this mean? Personally, it must be user-friendly to facilitate the learning of those under their care.

Who would have thought that I would be back in school after having left it for yonks? Who would have thought that I would pen my reflections in a blog? Well, it's interesting and exciting.

Cheers to technology and a brave new world!